Masculinity
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Men in the United States suffer more severe chronic conditions, have higher death rates for all 15 leading causes of death, and die nearly 7 yr younger than women. Health-related beliefs and behaviours are important contributors to these differences. Men in the United States are more likely than women to adopt beliefs and behaviours that increase their risks, and are less likely to engage in behaviours that are linked with health and longevity. In an attempt to explain these differences, this paper proposes a relational theory of men's health from a social constructionist and feminist perspective. It suggests that health-related beliefs and behaviours, like other social practices that women and men engage in, are a means for demonstrating femininities and masculinities. In examining constructions of masculinity and health within a relational context, this theory proposes that health behaviours are used in daily interactions in the social structuring of gender and power. It further proposes that the social practices that undermine men's health are often signifiers of masculinity and instruments that men use in the negotiation of social power and status. This paper explores how factors such as ethnicity, economic status, educational level, sexual orientation and social context influence the kind of masculinity that men construct and contribute to differential health risks among men in the United States. It also examines how masculinity and health are constructed in relation to femininities and to institutional structures, such as the health care system. Finally, it explores how social and institutional structures help to sustain and reproduce men's health risks and the social construction of men as the stronger sex.
Masculinity (also called manhood or manliness) is a set of attributes, behaviors, and roles associated with men and boys. Masculinity can be theoretically understood as socially constructed,[1] and there is also evidence that some behaviors considered masculine are influenced by both cultural factors and biological factors.[1][2][3][4] To what extent masculinity is biologically or socially influenced is subject to debate.[2][3][4] It is distinct from the definition of the biological male sex,[5][6] as anyone can exhibit masculine traits.[7] Standards of masculinity vary across different cultures and historical periods.
Standards of manliness or masculinity vary across different cultures, subcultures, ethnic groups and historical periods.[8] Traits traditionally viewed as masculine in Western society include strength, courage, independence, leadership, and assertiveness.[9][10][11][12] When women's labor participation increased, there were men who felt less comfortable in their masculinity because it was increasingly difficult for them to reconfirm their status as the breadwinner.[13]
The academic study of masculinity received increased attention during the late 1980s and early 1990s, with the number of courses on the subject in the United States rising from 30 to over 300.[14] This has sparked investigation of the intersection of masculinity with concepts from other fields, such as the social construction of gender difference[15] (prevalent in a number of philosophical and sociological theories).
Jeffrey Richards describes a European \"medieval masculinity which was essentially Christian and chivalric\".[30] Courage, respect for women of all classes and generosity characterize the portrayal of men in literary history.[citation needed] According to David Rosen, the traditional view of scholars (such as J. R. R. Tolkien) that Beowulf is a tale of medieval heroism overlooks the similarities between Beowulf and the monster Grendel. The masculinity exemplified by Beowulf \"cut[s] men off from women, other men, passion and the household\".[31]
During the Victorian era, masculinity underwent a transformation from traditional heroism. Scottish philosopher Thomas Carlyle wrote in 1831: \"The old ideal of Manhood has grown obsolete, and the new is still invisible to us, and we grope after it in darkness, one clutching this phantom, another that; Werterism, Byronism, even Brummelism, each has its day\".[32]
Boxing was professionalized in America and Europe in the 19th century; it emphasized the physical and confrontational aspects of masculinity.[33] Bare-knuckle boxing without gloves represented \"the manly art\" in 19th-century America.[34]
Across cultures, characteristics of masculinity are similar in essence but varying in detail, another shared pattern is that non-typical behavior of one's sex or gender may be viewed as a social problem. In sociology, this labeling is known as gender assumptions and is part of socialization to meet the mores of a society. Non-standard behavior may be considered indicative of homosexuality, despite the fact that gender expression, gender identity and sexual orientation are widely accepted as distinct concepts.[47][when][where] When sexuality is defined in terms of object choice (as in early sexology studies), male homosexuality may be interpreted as effeminacy.[48] Machismo is a form of masculinity that emphasizes power and is often associated with a disregard for consequences and responsibility.[49]
Some social scientists conceptualize masculinity (and femininity) as a performance.[51][52][53] Gender performances may not necessarily be intentional and people may not even be aware of the extent to which they are performing gender, as one outcome of lifelong gender socialization is the feeling that one's gender is \"natural\" or biologically-ordained.
Masculine performance varies over the life course, but also from one context to another. For instance, the sports world may elicit more traditionally normative masculinities in participants than would other settings.[54] Men who exhibit a tough and aggressive masculinity on the sports field may display a softer masculinity in familial contexts. Masculinities vary by social class as well. Studies suggest working class constructions of masculinity to be more normative than are those from middle class men and boys.[55][56] As these contexts and comparisons illustrate, theorists suggest a multiplicity of masculinities, not simply one single construction of masculinity.[52]
Contrary to the well-intentioned claim that gays are \"just the same\" as straights, there is a difference. What is more, the distinctive style of gay masculinity is of great social benefit. Wouldn't life be dull without the flair and imagination of queer fashion designers and interior decorators How could the NHS cope with no gay nurses, or the education system with no gay teachers Society should thank its lucky stars that not all men turn out straight, macho and insensitive. The different hetero and homo modes of maleness are not, of course, biologically fixed.[59]
Psychologist Joseph Pleck argues that a hierarchy of masculinity exists largely as a dichotomy of homosexual and heterosexual males: \"Our society uses the male heterosexual-homosexual dichotomy as a central symbol for all the rankings of masculinity, for the division on any grounds between males who are \"real men\" and have power, and males who are not\".[60] Michael Kimmel adds that the trope \"You're so gay\" indicates a lack of masculinity, rather than homosexual orientation.[61] According to Pleck, to avoid male oppression of women, themselves and other men, patriarchal structures, institutions and discourse must be eliminated from Western society.
In the documentary The Butch Factor, gay men (one of them transgender) were asked about their views of masculinity. Masculine traits were generally seen as an advantage in and out of the closet, allowing \"butch\" gay men to conceal their sexual orientation longer while engaged in masculine activities such as sports. Effeminacy is inaccurately[47] associated with homosexuality,[48] and some gay men doubted their sexual orientation; they did not see themselves as effeminate, and felt little connection to gay culture.[62] Some effeminate gay men in The Butch Factor felt uncomfortable about their femininity (despite being comfortable with their sexuality),[63] and feminine gay men may be derided by stereotypically-masculine gays.[64]
[Heterosexual] men are sometimes advised to get in touch with their \"inner feminine.\" Maybe gay men need to get in touch with their \"inner masculine\" instead. Identifying those aspects of being a man we most value and then cultivate those parts of our selves can lead to a healthier and less distorted sense of our own masculinity.[65]
Gay men have been presented in the media as feminine and open to ridicule, although films such as Brokeback Mountain are countering the stereotype.[65] A recent development is the portrayal of gay men in the LGBT community as \"bears\", a subculture of gay men celebrating rugged masculinity[67][68] and \"secondary sexual characteristics of the male: facial hair, body hair, proportional size, baldness\".[69]
Second-wave pro-feminism paid greater attention to issues of sexuality, particularly the relationship between homosexual men and hegemonic masculinity. This shift led to increased cooperation between the men's liberation and gay liberation movements developing, in part, because masculinity was understood as a social construct and in response to the universalization of \"men\" in previous men's movements. Men's-rights activists worked to stop second-wave feminists from influencing the gay-rights movement, promoting hypermasculinity as inherent to gay sexuality.[70]
Masculinity has played an important role in lesbian culture,[71] although lesbians vary widely in the degree to which they express masculinity and femininity. In LGBT cultures, masculine women are often referred to as \"butch\".[72][73][74]
Although often ignored in discussions of masculinity, women can also express masculine traits and behaviors.[81][82] In Western culture, female masculinity has been codified into identities such as \"tomboy\" and \"butch\". Although female masculinity is often associated with lesbianism, expressing masculinity is not necessarily related to a woman's sexuality. In feminist philosophy, female masculinity is often characterized as a type of gender performance which challenges traditional masculinity and male dominance.[83] Zachary A. Kramer argues that the discussion of masculinity should be opened up \"to include constructions of masculinity that uniquely affect women.\"[84] Masculine women are often subject to social stigma and harassment, although the influence of the feminist movement has led to greater acceptance of women expressing masculinity in recent decades.[85] 59ce067264
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